Fascism, Nazism, and Neo-Nazism

A Comparative Discussion

1. Introduction

Fascism, as an ideology and political system, emerged in the early 20th century, reacting to the perceived threats of socialism, communism, and liberal democracy. It advocated for authoritarian governance, hyper-nationalism, and often a commitment to military expansion. While fascism originally emerged in Italy, its ideas were later adopted and refined by Adolf Hitler in Germany, forming the basis for the Nazi regime. Following World War II, fascism was discredited, but its core principles found new life in neo-Nazi and far-right movements in Europe and North America.

This comparative discussion will delve into the origins and rise of early fascism, the distinct nature of Nazi ideology during WWII, and how these movements have evolved into today’s neo-Nazi groups. It will explore the similarities and differences in these political ideologies across time, focusing particularly on the political contexts of Germany, Italy, Britain, and the U.S., as well as how neo-Nazism has found new outlets in the digital age.

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2. Early Fascism: Origins and Rise

Italy: Mussolini’s Fascism

The rise of fascism began in Italy with Benito Mussolini’s creation of the National Fascist Party in 1919. Italy, which had been disappointed with the outcomes of World War I (the “mutilated victory”), was plagued by economic instability and social unrest. Mussolini capitalized on this discontent by offering a vision of a strong, centralized state that could restore Italy to greatness and combat both the threat of communism and the instability created by the postwar environment.

Key Ideas

Mussolini emphasized that the state was supreme, a view famously encapsulated in his 1932 declaration, “All within the state, nothing outside the state, nothing against the state.” His ideology, though authoritarian, was not based on racial purity, unlike later Nazi ideas. Instead, Mussolini focused on militarism, nationalism, and the glorification of the Roman Empire.

Rise to Power

Mussolini first rose to prominence as a socialist journalist, but after World War I, he shifted to more nationalist and militarist views, ultimately founding fascism. His March on Rome in 1922 led to his appointment as prime minister by the Italian king, and from there, he established a totalitarian state.

Sources

Benito Mussolini, The Doctrine of Fascism (1932)
Stanley G. Payne, A History of Fascism, 1914-1945 (1995)

Germany: The Rise of Nazism

While Italy provided the blueprint for fascism, it was Germany that saw the emergence of a more racialized and violent form of the ideology under Adolf Hitler. In the wake of World War I, Germany faced economic devastation, the humiliation of the Treaty of Versailles, and a nascent Communist threat. These conditions created a fertile ground for the rise of extremist ideologies.

The National Socialist German Workers’ Party (NSDAP), led by Adolf Hitler, capitalized on the frustrations of the German people. Hitler’s Mein Kampf outlined a vision of the state dominated by a racially pure Aryan elite. Hitler emphasized the need for territorial expansion (Lebensraum), the eradication of Jews, and the destruction of the Bolshevik menace.

Key Ideas

Central to Nazi ideology was racial purity, specifically the idea of the Aryan master race. This led to genocidal policies, including the extermination of Jews, Romani people, and other minorities. The Nazis also advanced ideas of territorial expansion to the East, which ultimately contributed to the outbreak of World War II.

Rise to Power

Hitler’s Nazi Party, initially a fringe movement, gained traction as Germany’s economic situation worsened during the Great Depression. Using mass rallies, propaganda, and the SA (Sturmabteilung), the Nazi paramilitary wing, Hitler won increasing support. In 1933, Hitler was appointed chancellor and quickly consolidated his power, eventually establishing a totalitarian state through the Reichstag Fire and the Enabling Act.

Sources

Adolf Hitler, Mein Kampf (1925)
Richard J. Evans, The Third Reich Trilogy (2003-2008)

Britain: The British Union of Fascists (BUF)

While fascism gained prominence in Italy and Germany, Britain’s political landscape remained relatively immune to full-scale fascism. However, the British Union of Fascists (BUF), led by Oswald Mosley, represents the British attempt to adapt fascism to the country’s specific political context.

Mosley’s BUF, founded in 1932, drew upon themes of authoritarianism, anti-communism, and nationalism. However, it was also marked by a certain degree of populism and a desire for corporatism—an economic system that would align workers and employers under the direct supervision of the state.

Key Ideas

Like Mussolini and Hitler, Mosley advocated for a strong state that would control all aspects of life. However, British fascism did not adopt the same racial purity rhetoric seen in Nazi Germany. Mosley, however, was openly antisemitic and sought to align the BUF with a pan-European fascist movement.

Rise to Power

Although the BUF initially gained some traction, its attempts to establish itself as a mass political force were hampered by internal divisions and opposition from both the British establishment and the general public. The BUF’s support waned after their violent confrontations with anti-fascist groups, particularly during the 1936 Battle of Cable Street.

Sources

Robert Benewick, Fascism in Europe (1989)

United States: Pre-WWII Fascist Movements

In the United States, fascism never reached the heights it did in Europe, but several groups, such as the German-American Bund and the Silver Legion, promoted fascist ideology and expressed admiration for Nazi Germany. These movements were fueled by the same fears of communism and social upheaval that motivated European fascism, but they were overshadowed by the broader American political culture of democracy and individualism.

Key Ideas

The German-American Bund was perhaps the most overtly Nazi-influenced, advocating for a strong authoritarian state and the preservation of a racially pure America. Similarly, the Silver Legion promoted antisemitism and authoritarian nationalism, but these groups never gained mainstream support.

Sources

The Protocols of the Elders of Zion – Although a fraudulent text, it became widely circulated among American far-right groups and spurred antisemitic beliefs.
Fascism in America in The American Political Science Review (1942)

3. Nazi Ideology and WWII

The Nazis developed a unique form of fascism, one that fused authoritarianism with a deeply racialized and expansionist ideology. Central to Nazi ideology was the concept of a racially pure “Aryan” nation, which necessitated the subjugation and elimination of Jews, Slavs, Romani people, and other “undesirables.”

The Nazis’ goals were realized through brutal programs of militarization, propaganda, and persecution. The regime’s plans for territorial expansion, encapsulated in the concept of Lebensraum, involved conquering Eastern Europe and displacing or exterminating its inhabitants. This expansion led directly to the outbreak of World War II.

Totalitarian Control

Under Hitler, the Nazi regime exercised total control over German society. The SS (Schutzstaffel), originally formed as Hitler’s personal bodyguard, grew into the regime’s primary agency of repression. The Gestapo (secret police) silenced dissent, while the propaganda machine, led by Joseph Goebbels, ensured public support.

The Holocaust

The most horrific element of Nazi ideology was the Holocaust, the systematic extermination of six million Jews, along with millions of other people, including Roma, disabled individuals, and political dissidents.

Sources

The Holocaust: A New History by Laurence Rees
The Third Reich at War by Richard J. Evans

4. The Post-WWII Period: Fascism in Decline and Neo-Nazism’s Rise

Following World War II, fascism was discredited, and many of its leaders were brought to trial for war crimes. However, the ideology did not disappear. Instead, it evolved and adapted, giving rise to neo-Nazism.

Neo-Nazism in Europe

In Germany, neo-Nazi groups like the National Democratic Party (NPD) continued to propagate racist and revisionist ideas, often denying the Holocaust and promoting a return to an idealized version of German nationalism. Similarly, in Greece, the far-right political party Golden Dawn emerged in the 1980s and grew in influence in the 2010s, promoting extreme nationalism, antisemitism, and anti-immigrant policies. In Hungary, Jobbik, originally founded as a right-wing nationalist party, also began adopting more openly neo-Nazi positions as it grew.

These groups tend to focus on anti-immigrant rhetoric, often targeting minorities such as Muslims, Jews, and Romani people. They advocate for stronger state control, militarization, and a return to national “purity,” echoing older fascist ideals. While these groups do not always employ the same level of violence seen in Nazi Germany, they often embrace violent tactics, particularly against political opponents and minority communities.

Sources

Cas Mudde, The Populist Radical Right: A Reader (2012) – A comprehensive study of far-right groups in Europe.
Golden Dawn: The New Face of the Far Right in Greece by John S. Kallia (2017)

Neo-Nazism in the U.S.

In the United States, neo-Nazism has evolved over the decades, starting from more overtly violent groups like the Ku Klux Klan (KKK) in the post-WWII years to the growth of skinhead subcultures in the 1980s and ‘90s. These groups were often influenced by a mix of white supremacy, neo-Nazi ideology, and anti-immigrant sentiments. More recently, alt-right groups, such as the Proud Boys, Identity Evropa, and The Base, have gained attention for their violent actions and white nationalist rhetoric.

The internet and social media have played a huge role in the spread of neo-Nazi ideologies in North America. Websites, forums like 4chan, and platforms such as Telegram have become spaces for the radicalization of individuals, particularly younger generations, who are exposed to propaganda and hate speech online.

The Charlottesville rally in 2017, organized by far-right groups including neo-Nazis, highlighted the increasing visibility and coordination of these groups. The event led to deadly violence and brought widespread attention to the growing threat of far-right extremism in the U.S.

Sources

Christian Picciolini, White American Youth: My Descent into America’s Most Violent Hate Movement—and How I Got Out (2017)
Hate: My Life in the White Power Movement by Christian Picciolini – A firsthand account of a former neo-Nazi and skinhead.

5. Contemporary Neo-Nazism in Europe and North America

Today, neo-Nazi and far-right groups in both Europe and North America are increasingly active, leveraging digital platforms to organize, spread propaganda, and recruit. While their methods have adapted to modern technological landscapes, their core beliefs remain steeped in ultranationalism, racism, and authoritarianism.

Neo-Nazism in Europe Today

In Germany, while the NPD and other extremist groups remain active, much of the neo-Nazi movement has shifted to online spaces where they can operate under the radar of strict anti-hate laws. These groups often advocate for a “pan-European” ideology, hoping to unite far-right forces across the continent to fight against what they perceive as the “Islamization” of Europe and the erosion of national identities due to immigration.

In Ukraine, far-right militias like Azov Battalion have garnered attention for their neo-Nazi affiliations, though they present themselves as patriotic fighters against Russian aggression. Despite their connections to neo-Nazi ideologies, these groups receive mixed support both domestically and internationally due to their role in the ongoing conflict with Russia.

Sources

Jan Zielonka, Counter-Revolution: Liberal Europe in Retreat (2018) – Examines the rise of far-right movements in Eastern Europe.

Neo-Nazism in North America Today

In North America, white nationalism has taken a more prominent role within the alt-right movement. Groups like the Proud Boys, Identity Evropa, and The Base combine neo-Nazi rhetoric with anti-immigrant, anti-feminist, and anti-leftist ideologies. These groups often have violent tendencies and have been involved in various incidents, such as the Capitol riot in Washington D.C. in 2021, where members of the Proud Boys participated in an attempted insurrection against the U.S. government.

The growing presence of hate speech on social media platforms has made it easier for these groups to recruit and radicalize young people. The alt-right has especially flourished on platforms like 4chan, Reddit, and Twitter, where they find like-minded individuals and spread their message of racial purity, antisemitism, and a rejection of multiculturalism.

Sources

The Alt-Right: What It Is and How It Got Here by Mike Wendling (2018)
The Road to Charlottesville by Alice Marwick and Rebecca Lewis (2018)

6. Comparative Analysis: Past and Present

While fascism and Nazism in their classic forms are now largely discredited, their ideologies have been revived in contemporary neo-Nazi and far-right groups. The key elements that define these movements—ultranationalism, authoritarianism, racism, and anti-democratic tendencies—remain consistent across time.

However, the tactics and organizational strategies have evolved. In the past, fascist and Nazi movements were largely physical, relying on rallies, marches, and militias to make their presence felt. Today, neo-Nazi movements are much more likely to organize in digital spaces, using social media and online platforms to spread propaganda and radicalize individuals. This shift in tactics has allowed neo-Nazism to gain a more widespread following, particularly among younger people.

Sources

The Extreme Right: The European Perspective by Roger Griffin (2019)
Alt-America: The Rise of the Radical Right in the Age of [redacted] by David Neiwert (2017)

7. Conclusion

Nazism, despite its decline after World War II, has evolved into a potent force in the 21st century. Today’s neo-Nazi groups are adapting their methods to new media, making them harder to track but no less dangerous. They have found new audiences in times of political and economic uncertainty, exploiting fears of immigration, globalism, and cultural change.

While these movements are not monolithic, their commitment to ultranationalism, racism, and authoritarianism continues to pose a significant threat to democratic institutions and social cohesion worldwide. Understanding the historical roots of these ideologies, and how they have evolved, is essential for combating their modern-day manifestations.

By examining the similarities and differences between fascist, Nazi and neo-Nazi movements across time and geography, we can better understand the complexities of these ideologies and develop effective strategies for countering their influence.

References

Benito Mussolini, The Doctrine of Fascism (1932)
Adolf Hitler, Mein Kampf (1925)
Stanley G. Payne, A History of Fascism, 1914-1945 (1995)
Richard J. Evans, The Third Reich Trilogy (2003-2008)
Robert Benewick, Fascism in Europe (1989)
Cas Mudde, The Populist Radical Right: A Reader (2012)
Christian Picciolini, White American Youth: My Descent into America’s Most Violent Hate Movement—and How I Got Out (2017)
Mike Wendling, The Alt-Right: What It Is and How It Got Here (2018)
David Neiwert, Alt-America: The Rise of the Radical Right in the Age of [redacted] (2017)